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The Urban Heat Island Phenomenon and Potential Mitigation Strategies |
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Mr. Maurice G. Estes, Jr., Ms. Virginia Gorsevski, Ms. Camille Russell, Dr. Dale Quattrochi, Dr. Jeffrey Luvall
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A survey of urban heat island research is provided to describe how heat islands develop, urban landscape and meteorological characteristics that facilitate development, use of aircraft remote sensing data, and why heat islands are of interest to planners, elected officials, and the public. The roles of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), other federal agencies, national laboratories and universities, state and local governments, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in studying the urban heat island effect and developing mitigation strategies are explored. Barriers that hamper mitigation efforts and case studies in Atlanta and Salt Lake City are discussed.
On warm summer days with calm winds, the air in a city can be 2-8oF hotter than the surrounding countryside. (1) Scientists call this phenomenon the "urban heat island" effect. This occurs because in urban areas, there are fewer trees, and other natural vegetation to shade buildings, block solar radiation and cool the air by evapotranspiration-the evaporation of water from the surfaces of leaves and the soil. In addition, roof and paving materials with low reflectivity absorb more of the sun's rays, causing both surface temperature and overall ambient air temperature in an urban area to rise. A typical profile of the urban heat island effect and its relationship to the urban landscape is shown in (figure 1) below.
Figure1: Urban Heat Island Profile
Urbanization has Dramatically Altered the Natural Landscape
Source: Environmental Protection AgencyUrban heat islands increase the demand for energy needed to cool homes and buildings. As the temperature in an urban area rises, more cooling energy is needed to maintain comfort levels in building structures. Currently, one-sixth of the electricity consumed in the U.S. is used for cooling purposes, at an annual cost of $ 40 billion. (2) Reductions in urban air temperature by just a few degrees could save consumers millions of dollars on their utility bills each year, while at the same time reducing harmful air emissions, such as sulfur dioxides (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are produced when fossil fuels are burned to generate electricity.
In addition, lower ambient air temperatures can decrease the amount of ground level ozone, or smog. Ozone (O3) is a photochemical oxidant and the major component of smog. While O3 in the upper atmosphere is beneficial to life by shielding the earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun, high concentrations of O3 at ground level are a major health and environmental concern. O3 is not emitted directly into the air but is formed through complex chemical reactions between precursor emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and NOx in the presence of sunlight. Transportation and industrial sources emit both VOCs and NOx. VOCs are emitted from sources as diverse as automobiles, chemical manufacturing, dry cleaners, paint shops and other sources using solvents. Sunlight and temperature stimulate these reactions so that peak O3 levels occur typically during the warmer times of the year. The exact relationship between temperature and ozone formation varies among geographical areas. However, recent simulations performed by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) show that for the Los Angeles basin, a reduction in summer temperatures by approximately 6 oF translates into an overall average reduction in smog of about 12 percent. (3)
A long-term strategy of planting shade trees and installing reflective materials for roofs and pavements can mitigate the urban heat island effect and help reduce associated economic, environmental, and health-related costs. When the sun beats down on buildings covered with dark colored roofing materials, most of the heat collected by the roof is transferred inside, increasing the demand for air conditioning. Installing highly reflective roofs will keep buildings cooler and reduce energy bills. Research conducted in Florida and California indicates that buildings with highly reflective roofs require up to 40 percent less energy for cooling than buildings covered with darker, less reflective roofs. (4) Roads, parking lots, and driveways paved with dark, heat absorbing materials (e.g., asphalt) also contribute to the urban heat island effect. Increasing the albedo of these surfaces through the use of reflective paving materials will help to cool down the surrounding ambient air temperature.
Planting shade trees reduces the amount of heat absorbed by buildings by directly shielding them from the sun's rays. In addition, trees, shrubs, and other plants help reduce ambient air temperatures through a process known as "evapotranspiration." This occurs when water absorbed by vegetation evaporates off of the leaves and surrounding soil to naturally cool the surrounding air. Within 10-15 years - the time it takes a tree to grow to a significant size - strategically placed trees can reduce heating and cooling costs for a typical home or office by an average of 10-20 percent. (5) Additional benefits from trees include reductions in storm water runoff, erosion, and urban noise, to name a few. (6)
These urban heat island mitigation strategies when combined, can help to reduce direct energy use in buildings, and if implemented on a community-wide basis, can reduce overall ambient air temperature in a given area. The result is a decrease in criteria pollutants such as NOx from power generation, as well as a decrease in the formation of smog as more sunlight is reflected back into the atmosphere rather than absorbed by the metropolitan landscape.
As part of the Heat Island Reduction Initiative (HIRI), EPA and other federal agencies are working to quantify the potential benefits of the previously identified heat island reduction strategies. One component of this initiative known as the Urban Heat Island Pilot Project (UHIPP) involves a voluntary partnership between EPA and three U.S. cities, including Sacramento, Salt Lake City, and Baton Rouge. While not formally part of the UHIPP, heat island research and exploration of mitigation strategies is also underway in Atlanta. Teams in each of these cities have been working over the past year with scientists at NASA and LBNL to better understand how heat island reduction strategies such as strategic tree planting and the installation of highly reflective roof and paving materials can help to reduce energy use, save money and prevent pollution.
In addition, EPA has identified several key barriers to widespread implementation of these strategies and is working with organizations such as the International Council on Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) to develop "tools" that can help city planners and others to effectively overcome these barriers. Tools might include modifications to existing city ordinances and/or building codes that encourage widespread use of highly reflective roof and paving material and strategic tree planting. In addition, through the ENERGY STAR Roof Products Program, which was formally launched in February 1998, commercial and residential roof products that meet certain specifications based on overall reflectivity can be labeled with the ENERGY STAR logo. This logo alerts consumers to those products that can help to reduce cooling energy demand in homes and buildings, thereby saving them money on monthly utility bills. More information can be found on the ENERGY STAR at its website. Finally, EPA is working with state air quality offices and others to develop a method that could potentially allow states to include heat island reduction strategies into their air quality plans as a measure to reduce ozone levels.
Atlanta Case Study
The Atlanta metropolitan area is experiencing rapid population growth, urban sprawl, and long commuting distances. Forest and grassland areas are being replaced largely by low-density residential development. The Atlanta area has significant air quality problems and is not in attainment with the EPA mandated ozone standard. As a result federal highway funding may be in jeopardy.
NASA’s Project ATLANTA (ATlanta Land use ANalysis: Temperature and Air quality) was initiated in 1997 to study the urban heat island effect . This science and applications research project is studying how land use changes in the Atlanta metropolitan area since the early 1970’s to the present has impacted the region’s meteorology and air quality. The project is also attempting to model how predicted urban growth for the future will further affect Atlanta’s meteorology and air quality in the future. In addition to advancing research knowledge, Project ATLANTA is designed to be a demonstration of how remote sensing data can be shared with planners, decision makers, policy makers, and other stakeholders in the community and used to facilitate policy and decision making. Also, in conjunction with sharing the data, efforts are being made to work with stakeholders to use research results to design potential urban heat island mitigation strategies.
Aircraft remote sensing data were collected over the Atlanta metropolitan region to facilitate study of the urban heat island. Multispectral thermal infrared airborne data was acquired over Atlanta using the Advanced Thermal and Land Applications Sensor (ATLAS) over a 48 x 48 km2 area, centered on the Atlanta Central Business District (CBD) on May 11 and 12, 1997. The remotely sensed data were collected at a 10 meter pixel spatial resolution during the daytime, between approximately 11:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. local time (Eastern Daylight Time) to capture the highest incidence of solar radiation across the city landscape around solar noon. Data were also obtained the following morning (May 12) between 2:00-4:00 a.m. local time (Eastern Daylight Time) to measure the Atlanta urban surface during the coolest time of the diurnal energy cycle (7). Thermal remote sensing data, as displayed in (figure 2), will be used to quantify the magnitude of the Atlanta heat island and to identify "hot spots" across the metropolitan area.
Figure 2: Atlanta Thermal Remote Sensing Image
Source: NASA’s Global Hydrology and Climate Center, Huntsville, Alabama.
(http://www.ghcc.msfc.nasa.gov)
This thermal color enhanced image over the Atlanta central business district shows heating characteristics for various kinds of land cover types typical of urban areas, such as buildings, pavement and impervious surfaces, and vegetation. During the daytime air temperatures were in the low eighties and remotely sensed surface temperatures ranged from approximately 70 to 131 degrees Fahrenheit. The image displayed as (figure 2) shows surface heating across the urban landscape with a graduated color scale. White to red to orange are the warmest areas and yellow to green to blue the coolest. The white and red building roofs downtown are the hottest surface areas. The blue areas depict several cool areas downtown as a result of building shadows and forest areas in the southeast portion of the image. Yellow and green areas indicate temperature differentials between surface and elevated roadways.
Other image processing techniques can be used to identify or highlight particular features of interest. Green and blue visible and red near infrared bands can be combined to produce a false color red, green, blue (RGB) composite image as shown below in (figure 3).
Figure 3: RGB Composite
Vegetated areas appear as red rather than green, which is why images such as this are referred to as false color.
Alabama.
An applications working group has been organized in Atlanta to work with the research team in both sharing the data and effectively using the research results to benefit the community. This is a diverse group that includes policy makers, community leaders, and private business interests that have the common interest of improving the quality of Atlanta’s urban environment. An urban and environmental planner is part of the research team and is expected to provide a critical interface between the science team and applications working group. The planner’s primary function is to ensure that science results are effectively communicated to policy makers, decision-makers, and the public and that these results are targeted toward users or problems that are of the greatest interest to the user community. To achieve this goal, the following methodology has been developed:
To implement this methodology, an initial meeting was held in September 1997 with science team and applications working group members to explain the urban heat island research project, describe aircraft remote sensing data, and discuss potential data products and research results. Meetings are being held two to three times annually for project updates. Emphasis was placed on establishing a minimum level of understanding of the project’s science objectives and data characteristics as soon as possible. This was needed as early as possible for the stakeholders to effectively contribute to the development of an applications strategy or action plan. Stakeholders were encouraged to generate a wish list of needs or issues that the heat island research results and remote sensing data could potentially benefit. In developing a list of needs, stakeholders were encouraged to think of the questions they want answered and the kind of data desired for use given the systems or tools used in their respective organizations. From this, a priority list of desired data products and research outputs were produced. These data products and research outputs were discussed with the research team and a path was mapped to producing the desired outputs. The priority needs and areas of interest are as follow:
The following suggestions for packaging data products and research results for stakeholders and the public were provided by the applications working group members:
Over the past two years strong linkages have been established with key stakeholders in Atlanta and their potential use of the remote sensing data products that have, and will be, developed for the project. A CD-ROM with data slices from selected sites of interest in the study area has been developed and distributed to the applications working group members and other interested parties. This data product provides examples of the aircraft remote sensing data and was designed as an education tool for stakeholders and the public.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) remains most interested in the link between air quality and urban heating. This linkage will be more clearly established in 1999 when model results are available from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL). Atlanta’s next State Implementation Plan (SIP) deadline is December 2000 and it’s hoped the urban heat island research effort will provide knowledge that can be integrated into an action plan for mitigation of ground level ozone pollution. A SIP is a collection of the regulations a state will use to clean up polluted areas, called non-attainment areas. States develop a separate SIP for each standard or air pollutant of concern. SIPs address pollutants such as: ozone, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter (PM-10) (EPA Office of the Inspector General, EPA’s Air State Implementation Plan Consolidated Report)
The Environmental Office of the City of Atlanta is interested is using results from the urban heat island research in the development of a fifty year environmental plan and the redevelopment of a brownfield site located just to the north of the CBD. This proposed mixed-use development is an excellent example of a project that supports sustainable development concepts. The City also expressed interest in using the aircraft remote sensing data to determine water temperatures in streams critical to the area’s water supply.
The National Park Service (NPS) is involved with an experimental project to use porous paving materials for a parking area along the Chattahoochee River in North Atlanta. This type of paving material will reduce urban runoff and be cooler than traditional materials used in parking lots. The NPS is interested in working with the urban heat island research team to establish a measurement protocol and monitoring program to asses the thermal differences between the porous paving material and concrete and asphalt surfaces.
Potential collaborative research opportunities have been discussed with faculty at the Georgia Institute of Technology and the University of Georgia. Additional efforts will be made to pursue funding for applied research projects of mutual interest. The aircraft remotely sensed data collected over Atlanta may be very useful in pursuing some of these investigations.
Plans were made in the Spring of 1998 to have a student perform an analysis of the Georgia State University (GSU) roof systems using both remote sensing and in situ data. The facilities engineer at GSU, who is also a member of the applications working group, requested this applied research study.
Figure 4: EPDM-B roofing without and with river rock
Source: Energy Emissivity Analysis of GSU Rooftops, 1998
During the 8-week GSU project, in situ measurements of the surface temperature of twenty building rooftops were taken with an infrared thermometer in June and compared with the remotely sensed data set of May 1997. Four basic roof systems were studied, tar and gravel, asphalt and gravel, modified bitumen, and EPDM-B. The initial results of the study do not generally indicate significant differences between surface temperatures and the four roof systems. However, the black EPDM-B without a river rock covering was significantly hotter, approximately 25 degrees Fahrenheit, than the EPDM-B with river rock (8). Examples of the EPDM-B roof cover is provided in (figure 4).
The most interesting result was a strong correlation between older gravel surfaced coal tar pitch roofs and higher surface temperatures. The gravel-surfaced coal tar pitch roof is common in commercial areas throughout the United States. As the roof deteriorates through exposure to sunlight and weather, the flow of bitumen allows gravel to become more embedded, exposing the dark colored bitumen to greater solar loading (9) This causes the roof surface to become hotter as shown in (figure 5).
Figure 5: Deteriorating gravel surfaced coal tar pitch roof.
Source: Energy Emissivity Analysis of GSU Rooftops, 1998
It has been suggested that the study could be expanded to include white thermal plastics, white-coated membranes, and metal roofs to provide a more comprehensive analysis of the majority of roofing types present within the Atlanta metropolitan area. More study on the role of insulation and roof surface temperatures is also desirable to correctly interpret results.
A CD-ROM with all flight lines georeferenced in a variety of image file formats has been developed. The georeferenced datasets on CD-ROM has been provided to the Atlanta Regional Commission (ARC) and Georgia Tech Geographic Information System laboratory. Thermal color wall size work maps of three flight lines over the heart of the Atlanta Central Business District and surrounding area have been developed to identify "hot spots" and other areas for further study. The maps are approximately 2.5 feet in width and 5 feet in length.
As we have worked in Atlanta, it has become apparent that a local presence would significantly facilitate ongoing efforts to share data with planners, decision-makers, and others. Also, to enable these end users to effectively utilize research results in new policies or the daily conduct of business.
Population, urban expansion and commercial development are on the rise in metropolitan Salt Lake City. In the last six years alone, Utah has experienced an unprecedented economic boom, attracting large numbers of residents from other states. Current Salt Lake metropolitan projections show a sixty-five percent surge in population, up to 1.3 million residents along the Wasatch Front by 2020. This, coupled with a consistently growing residential population, has resulted in tremendous urban expansion and development.
As a result of Salt Lake City’s unique geographical conditions, with the Wasatch Mountains bordering the east and the Oquirrh Mountains and Great Salt Lake bordering the west, the Wasatch Front area experiences unique air quality conditions that result in high levels of ground level ozone in the summer, precipitated by criteria pollutants such as NOx and VOC’s, and an unsightly and hazardous inversion in the winter. In fact, the new EPA standard for ground layer ozone which measures ozone over an eight-hour period and considers the air dangerously polluted when ozone concentration exceed .08 parts per million, was exceeded 68 times on 21 days across the state last summer. (10)
Emerging development and urban growth currently underway in Salt Lake City cause energy, air quality and environmental problems that could adversely affect the people and children that live and work in this uniquely situated city. Planners, developers, community leaders and the public at large in the Salt Lake City area need reliable and practical information and support to implement strategies in their neighborhoods that reduce energy consumption, improve air and water quality, manage storm water runoff, provide habitat for urban wildlife and improve the overall comfort, livability and economic vitality of their urban neighborhoods.
Cool Communities is a collaborative federal and local program designed to implement practical strategies that reduce peak load electrical consumption, mitigate the development of urban heat islands and directly improve air quality. These strategies include 1) the use of "cool" roof and street surfaces that are light-colored and reflect incoming solar radiation as opposed to absorbing and emitting it back into the environment, thereby reducing surface and ambient air temperatures, and 2) the use of strategically planted, drought tolerant deciduous and coniferous trees, shrubs and ground covers that evaporate cool water vapor into the air while directly shading and protecting buildings, streets, and parking lots.
Salt Lake City became a Cool Communities pilot in November, 1995. Its primary local partners include the Utah Office of Energy Services and Tree Utah. The program is operated through a broad based steering committee with members from a variety of professional fields, including architecture, landscape architecture, private industry, government, non-profit and educational. Steering Committee members participate in four working committees. These are: Research and Technical Committee, Planning and Policy Committee, Implementation Committee, and the Outreach and Education Committee.
In terms of air quality improvements, Cool Communities’ strategies reduce electrical demand associated with air conditioning because the program seeks to mitigate urban heat islands, a prime source of heat in cities. Overall, these reductions result in less cooling energy demand by regional power plants, reducing the pollution associated with the burning of fossil fuel. Another main component of Cool Communities is the use of trees and vegetation in the urban environment. Urban trees directly sequester CO2, as well as PM(10) and other airborne particulate. Cool Communities goals also include strategies that reduce citizen dependency on the automobile. For example, narrow streets, tree-lined sidewalks, bicycle paths, and downtown public transportation provide citizens with pedestrian friendly and "green" urban surroundings. These activities directly reduce automobile emissions, which include NOx and CO2. With a de-emphasis on the automobile, less expansive, heat producing parking areas are needed, thereby reducing evaporative losses of VOC’s from vehicular gas tanks. Also, parking areas that include trees and light-colored surfaces produce cooler temperatures, resulting in reduced need for automobile air conditioning, another air quality concern.
In terms of energy consumption, there is potential for Cool Communities to significantly save energy. The combined use of strategically planted shade trees and other vegetation with the use of light-colored, highly reflective building and street surfaces have demonstrated impressive reductions in energy consumption. For example, computer simulations generated by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, demonstrate that the effect of planting three trees around a typical house can save 18 - 44% of peak electrical power, and up to 53% of the total annual cooling electricity use. LBNL also estimates that a typical house with an albedo (reflectivity level) of 90% consumed 60% less energy, had a 35% lower peak electrical power demand, and experienced 44% fewer cooling hours. Furthermore, the U.S. Department of Energy predicts that if all the nation’s roads and buildings were changed from black to light-colored, reflective surfaces, approximately $4 billion a year could be saved annually in air conditioning bills and smog could be reduced by 10%.
Last year, the Salt Lake City Cool Communities program was selected to participate in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s "Heat Island Reduction Initiative", a collaborative endeavor among U.S. EPA, U.S. Department of Energy, NASA’s Global Hydrology and Climate Center, and many local partners.
Figure 6: NASA Lear jet
Source: The Cool Communities Program
The goal of this project is to analyze the role urban heat islands play in rising temperatures,
increased energy consumption and degraded air quality and to quantify the potential benefits of heat island reduction strategies on energy use and air pollution. As a result of this partnership, a NASA Lear jet (figure 6) equipped with the ATLAS sensor that was used to collect data over Atlanta, flew over the Salt Lake valley on July 13, 1998 and took thermal "snap-shots" in order to better understand which surfaces contribute to or drive the development of urban heat islands.
Local partners such as the Utah Office of Energy Services, the Energy & Geoscience Institute, the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, the Utah Division of Air Quality and Tree Utah will help analyze the NASA generated images and determine the role of Cool Communities strategies on improving energy efficiency, reducing global warming effects of carbon in the atmosphere, improving air and water quality, and encouraging sustainable development in our cities. These images provide core data for local planners, developers and architects toward the implementation of Cool Communities strategies throughout the Salt Lake valley. (Figure 7, the thermal image of downtown Salt Lake City and surrounding urban areas, including the University of Utah.)
Figure 7: Salt Lake City Thermal Remote Sensing Image
Source: NASA’s Global Hydrology and Climate Center
Thermal image of Salt Lake City, taken by NASA on July 13, 1998. Reds and yellows represent "hot" surfaces (up to 160 degrees Fahrenheit), while blues and greens represent "cool" surfaces (up to 90 degrees Fahrenheit). The left side (west) of the image displays downtown SLC and the Central Business District, while the right side (east) shows the University of Utah and the base of the Wasatch Mountains. Large blue areas throughout the image are likely parks, cemeteries, and large "green" spaces, while the large red areas consist mostly of buildings, streets and parking lots.
During the over flight, our partners facilitated a research project among ten youth groups whereby children measured air temperature near grassy and impervious surfaces on their school grounds and recreation centers (figure 8). More than 150 children participated in this endeavor, and results will assist our researchers in determining the role surface temperatures, color and reflectivity play in rising air temperatures. Children worked in teams and recorded their findings on data sheets. We found that children and teachers who participated in this project showed interest, understanding and enthusiasm. This project demonstrates to children the benefits of implementing Cool Communities strategies in the urban environment and bridges youth education with the implementation of strategies that offset CO2 production, improve air quality and encourage sustainable development. Education, the key mechanism to achieve this bridge, integrates youth with experiments that allow them to investigate urban design, energy efficiency and sustainability on their school grounds.
Figure 8: Children take air temperature measurements and record their findings at the University of Utah last summer.
Additionally, our researchers facilitated surface temperature measurements on several rooftops in Salt Lake City using a hand-held infrared thermometer to make comparisons among different types of roof surfaces (figure 9). It is important to understand the thermal properties of a variety of roof types and reflectivity within Salt Lake City to create a baseline understanding of the city’s urban fabric. Currently, our Salt Lake City Cool Communities partners are analyzing existing roof surfaces in the downtown "Gateway" area to determine rooftop age, type and surface temperature. The Gateway is a current redevelopment project located adjacent to the Salt Lake City CBD. This information will be compared to the NASA generated thermal imagery described above and will eventually be passed along to planners and developers currently engaged in a master planning process for the Gateway area.
Currently, there are several activities underway in Salt Lake City aimed at implementing the Cool Communities program in conjunction with the Urban Heat Island Pilot Project previously described. Foremost is the development of the Cool Communities steering committee and its working committees. These four working committees address issues surrounding research, education, implementation and policy, and engage professionals in such diverse fields as architecture, science, geography, environmental, industry, landscape architecture, planning, policy and development.
These committee members are tasked with meeting and implementing the Salt Lake City Cool Communities mission statement: to promote and implement energy efficient and habitable communities through effective structural and landscape planning, design and development. Each committee works to meet its respective mission statement, goals and current activities. (11)
Figure 9: Measurement of rooftop temperatures with a hand-held thermal infrared thermometer in Salt Lake City.
Another activity underway is the implementation of Cool Communities strategies into ordinances and policies for Salt Lake City and its Gateway District. Recently, Cool Communities strategies were listed as "Objective 8" under The Gateway Specific Plan, prepared for Salt Lake City by the Salt Lake City Planning Division. This plan was adopted by the Salt Lake City Planning Commission on July 9, 1998, and the Salt Lake City Council on August 11, 1998. The Gateway District is comprised of approximately 650 acres located west of downtown Salt Lake City. The revitalization of the Gateway District, which consists primarily of industrial, warehousing and distribution uses, will create an urban, mixed-use neighborhood "for residents of Salt Lake City to work, live, learn, and relax in close proximity to downtown." (12) The Gateway Specific Plan states that Salt Lake City encourages "the use of ‘cool communities’ strategies to improve comfort, health and aesthetics within the Gateway District." (13)
Other noteworthy activities include: 1) the completion of a ten-week seminar at the University of Utah Department of Geography on CITYgreen, an interactive GIS program that measures and maps urban ecosystems and evaluates the role of implementing Cool Communities strategies in site specific developments (14). 2) collaboration with planners to implement Cool Communities strategies into the Salt Lake County Zoning Ordinance, currently being revised by the Salt Lake County Planning Division; 3) collaboration with the Utah Transit Authority and TreeUtah to implement light-colored paving materials and strategically placed shade trees in one or more of the light-rail transit "park and ride" lots to serve as demonstration projects; 4) grants pending to implement a "Kool Kids" program, whereby curriculum and research projects related to the "urban heat island effect" will be facilitated in Salt Lake City classrooms; and 5) grants pending to analyze and interpret NASA generated thermal data to classify land-covers, identify "hot" spots, quantify and evaluate vegetative canopy and determine which surfaces drive or contribute to the "urban heat island effect" in the Salt Lake City area.
Akbari, H., "Cool Construction Materials Offer Energy Savings and Help Reduce Smog," ASTM Standardization News, November 1995, pp. 32-37.
Apprill, Amy "Energy Emissivity Analysis of Georgia State University Building Rooftops," page 13 (1998).
Cool Communities Steering Committee, "The Cool Communities Organizational and Working Plan", November, (1998)
Quattrochi, Dale A. Jeffrey C. Luvall, and Maurice G. Estes, Jr., "Project ATLANTA (ATlanta Land use ANalysis: Temperature and Air quality) - A Study of How the Urban Landscape Affects Meteorology and Air Quality Through Time.", 2nd Urban Environments Meeting, Sponsored by the AMS, Nov. 2-6, 1998, Albuquerque, NM
Rosenfeld A.H., J.J. Romm, H. Akbari, and A.C. Lloyd, "Painting the Town White - and Green," Technology Review, February/March 1997, p. 54.
Rosenfeld, A.H., H. Akbari, J.J. Romm, M. Pomerantz, "Cool Communities: Strategies for Heat Island Mitigation and Smog Reduction," Energy and Buildings 28 (1998) pp. 51-62.
Salt Lake City Planning Division, "The Gateway Specific Plan".
Salt Lake City Panning Division, "The Gateway Specific Plan", Objective 8, p. 45.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency "Cooling our Communities: A Guidebook on Tree Planting and Light-Colored Surfacing,", January 1992, 22P-2001 p. 5
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency "Cooling our Communities: A Guidebook on Tree Planting and Light-Colored Surfacing," January 1992, 22P-2001, p. 27-42.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, SC-Action #120, October 9, 1998
Waterfill, Marty CSI and Patrick Downey RRC, CDT "Georgia State University Roof Temperature Study", page 4 (1998)
Wolf, Karen "Apt to Map" Continuum Magazine," University if Utah, Vol. 8, No. 3, P. 16-19, 1998-99.
1. Cooling our Communities: A Guidebook on Tree Planting and Light-Colored Surfacing," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 22P-2001, January 1992, p. 5.
2. A.H. Rosenfeld, J.J. Romm, H. Akbari, and A.C. Lloyd, "Painting the Town White - and Green," Technology Review, February/March 1997, p. 54.
3. A.H. Rosenfeld, H. Akbari, J.J. Romm, M. Pomerantz, "Cool Communities: Strategies for Heat Island Mitigation and Smog Reduction," Energy and Buildings 28 (1998) pp. 51-62.
4. Akbari, H., "Cool Construction Materials Offer Energy Savings and Help Reduce Smog," ASTM Standardization News, November 1995, pp. 32-37.
5. Cooling our Communities: A Guidebook on Tree Planting and Light-Colored Surfacing," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 22P-2001, January 1992, p. 27-42.
6. Ibid.
7. Dale A. Quattrochi, Jeffrey C. Luvall, and Maurice G. Estes, Jr., "Project ATLANTA (ATlanta Land use ANalysis: Temperature and Air quality) - A Study of How the Urban Landscape Affects Meteorology and Air Quality Through Time.", 2nd Urban Environments Meeting, Sponsored by the AMS, Nov. 2-6, 1998, Albuquerque, NM.
8. Apprill, Amy, "Energy Emissivity Analysis of Georgia State University Building Rooftops," p. 13, 1998.
9. "Georgia State University Roof Temperature Study", Marty Waterfill CSI and Patrick Downey RRC, CDT, page 4, 1998
10. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, SC-Action #120, October 9, 1998
11. "The Cool Communities Organizational and Working Plan", Prepared by the Cool Communities Steering Committee (Camille Russell lead author), November, 1998.
12. "The Gateway Specific Plan", Salt Lake City Planning Division
13. The Gateway Specific Plan", Objective 8, Salt Lake City Planing Division, p. 45
14. Karen Wolf, "Apt to Map", Continuum Magazine, University of Utah, Vol.8, No. 3, Pg. 16-19, 1998-99.
Mr. Maurice G. Estes, Jr., Universities Space Research Association
Ms. Virginia Gorsevski, Environmental Protection Agency
Ms. Camille Russell, Utah Office of Energy Services
Dr. Dale Quattrochi, NASA, Global Hydrology and Climate Center
Dr. Jeffrey Luvall, NASA, Global Hydrology and Climate Center