The ABC's of Sustainable Communities: A Work in Progress
Joshua Wolfe, AICP	© & Author Info

Abstract

Sustainable Development is not a simple topic, it posits that economic vitality, social equity and environmental protection must be addressed comprehensively. This paper presents the basic building blocks, the a-b-c's, of planning for sustainable communities. The activities planners typically address can be modified to help attain sustainability. The categorization provided here should not imply that the subjects are mutually exclusive, the divisions are designed to enhance understanding. Frequently, you will find that a remedy suggested in one section would also benefit another component. It will probably be necessary to amend the municipal Comprehensive Plan, its zoning and subdivision ordinances, and its building and housing codes. This text is part of a larger work on planning for sustainable development.

Introduction

Cities and counties make day-to-day decisions affecting the sustainability of both the community and the planet. Many of the activities of a local government have environmental, economic and/or community impacts. Local sustainability includes many activity spheres and systems. Almost every local government department or agency can be involved in sustainability efforts. The following are just some examples of the kinds of things that can be done.

The various issues that are part of community sustainability can be classified in a number of ways. Your own community may develop different categories, based on existing divisions between departmental responsibilities. Sustainability requires understanding of the interdependence of different issues. Too often, we consider them separately - ignoring the impacts they have on one other. For example, the kinds of land uses that are grouped together will have an impact on the mode of transportation that will be efficient and desirable. And the economic viability of a community is directly dependent on the education levels of the majority of its residents. The themes are interwoven and connected.

The relative attention to be paid to the different municipal activity spheres will vary, depending on economic, geographic, social and other factors. For example, a coastline suburban county on Galveston Bay, TX will have concerns quite different from a built-out community located within an urban area, like Newark, NJ.

Building Blocks of Community Sustainability

Access: Coordinating land use and transportation design

Biodiversity: Preserving land, habitat and other species

Community identity: Building a sense of community, preserving local culture

Distribution: Ensuring a safe, healthful and equitable community for everyone

Eco-Efficiency: Preventing pollution through better use of energy and natural resources

A. ACCESS

Land use and transportation planning must be coordinated to ensure sustainability. That is why the two concepts are covered together in one section. The goal of land use planning is to ensure a safe, efficient arrangement of the activities and facilities that are necessary to daily life. Typically, the land use planning process separates these functions into different zones. Transportation networks then permit access between and among these different uses. If land uses were less segregated, access without using the automobile would be easier. People could walk, cycle or take a short bus trip from home to work, to their child's school and to the grocery store. "A city's land-use pattern defines its transportation system more than any other factor. It affects people's decisions to walk, cycle, take public transport, or drive long distances to go to work and school, shop, recreate, and worship." (ICLEI 1995).

Until the Second World War period, most Americans lived either in rural areas or in relatively compact communities. Most daily needs were accessible on foot or via transit. Extensive networks of streetcars, buses, and inter-city trains provided access to the workplace. Commuting was centered on traditional downtowns and most people rode public transportation.

Making transit use feasible once again does not require all of us to live in a Manhattan of skyscrapers. Ten dwelling units per acre (e.g., detached houses on 40 x 100-foot lots, or attached units with shared open space) can support half-hourly local bus service. A density of at least seventeen dwellings per acre is needed to support reasonably frequent local bus service, while twenty-two dwellings per acre) are needed for light rail (Pushkarev and Zupan 1977). Such densities require rowhousing, duplex homes, or single-family homes with accessory units (sometimes called 'in-law units' or 'granny flats'). At least one survey has shown that many suburbanites would prefer to live in a community more compact than their current neighborhood (ICLEI 1995). Equally important to encourage transit use is the clustering of employment in a business district.

"The density...of the nonresidential concentration is most important, because of its multiple effect of reducing auto ownership of habitual travelers there, restraining auto use by auto owners, and providing conditions for convenient transit service in two ways: by high frequency of service that is necessary to serve large numbers of riders, and by short access walks made possible by compact land use arrangement....High residential density by itself does little for transit if there is no dominant place to go to...

"Thus land use policies which do most for public transportation are those which will help cluster nonresidential floorspace in downtowns and other compact development patterns. Downtowns of 10 million square feet of gross nonresidential floorspace (the size of White Plains, NY or Stamford, Conn.), if confined within less than one square mile, begin to make moderately frequent bus service possible and to attract an appreciable proportion of trips by transit. Spread suburban clusters of nonresidential use can only occasionally support meager bus service, i.e., if they contain shopping centers, or if they are surrounded by residential densities in excess of about seven dwellings per acre (Pushkarev and Zupan 1977, p.174).

Principles of Sustainable Physical Design

Design comprehensive, mixed-use neighborhoods instead of isolated pods, subdivisions and developments. Develop in clusters and keep the clusters human-scaled.

Building on untouched sites destabilizes natural systems and can mean losing valuable agricultural or forest land. Access to the new development requires more roads, more trips, more extensions of the urban infrastructure.

Incentives to turn farmlands, wetlands, habitats and other open spaces into sub-divisions will diminish, and such uses will remain functional, increasing the diversity of the land-uses found in a region.

Until the costs of externalities such as pollution control, road construction and maintenance, damage and loss of life due to accidents, are represented in the price at the gasoline pump, the general public will not respond to incentives for more sustainable development.

Mixed development on traffic-calmed streets will encourage non-automobile transit modes. The easier it is for residents to walk or bike around their neighborhoods, the more likely they will avail themselves of these forms of mobility. Densities of at least ten dwelling units per acre will help make local transit service more feasible.

In an energy efficient city, there would be a higher density of development along bus routes and around railway stations instead of an energy-consuming, spreading pattern of development.

• Use a variety of modes, including jitneys, vans, minibuses, trolleys, light-rail;

• Make scheduling more flexible (dial-a-bus and paratransit);

• Increase access to information (e.g., telephone recordings, Internet sites, signage);

• Co-ordinate service between providers; and

• Speed up fare collection (monthly passes, pre-boarding turnstiles, honor system).

Create communities that contain the full range of development densities and land-uses; avoid large tracts with the same density or land-use.

Standards for insulation, passive solar access, the use, disposal and re-use of materials can be modified to lessen environmental and economic costs over the life of the building.

Landscaping can be irrigated from graywater from washing if the plumbing is designed to capture sink and washing machine run-off. Space can be allocated for permit separation of waste that can be recycled, composted or re-used.

EXAMPLE: The area around the Pleasant Hill BART station east of San Francisco Bay is an example of transit oriented development. "Sixty percent of those living in nearby units said [access to] BART was a major factor in moving there. Studies have consistently found that 40 percent of the area residents use BART to commute to their workplace. BART proximity is augmented by van-pools, childcare service, free lunch-time shuttle, and a guaranteed ride home program for workers in adjacent regional office space as further tools to reduce vehicle trips." (Urban Ecology 1996).

EXAMPLE: Mizner Park, in affluent, suburban Boca Raton, FL is a mixed use project - comprising rental apartments above stores, restaurants, cinemas and offices lining both sides of a linear public park. The development replaced a 15-year-old conventional shopping mall that had suffered high vacancy rates. The project is successful although it defies conventional marketing wisdom because its housing was built above stores, the shops and parking are not visible from the adjacent arterial street, and the office space has no distinct identity (Urban Land Institute, 1992).

B. Biodiversity–Space for other species

People depend on nature for a steady supply of the basic requirements of life. We need quality food, clean air and water for healthy living. We are beginning to notice the physical limitations of our environment: its ability to process the wastes produced by communities and convert them into new resources. This carrying capacity is the uppermost limit on the number of individuals and species an ecosystem or habitat can sustain, given the supply and availability of nutrients (Stallworth, 1997). For example, when a community dependent on local groundwater aquifers consumes more water than is recharged by rainfall, it is exceeding the local carrying capacity.

"One of the reasons biological diversity is so threatened is that urban dwellers have little experience of the natural and less understanding of its importance. Restoring nature where people live - reestablishing a personal link with the living world - is necessary if we are to save it"(Ryan 1992). As we replace wooded areas with golf courses and lawns, construct shopping malls and housing subdivisions in floodplains, and use estuaries as disposal areas for municipal and industrial discharge, the physical components of ecosystems can no longer support the wildlife living there. As a result, a number of species are at risk of extinction.

Biodiversity is not just a matter of maintaining land for plants and wildlife "outside" of the city. Nature has a place within the city as well. The "urban forest" produces valuable and underappreciated benefits. For example, tree canopies provide energy conservation by reducing cooling needs in hot weather, act as indicators of ecological health, link people to natural cycles. They provide carbon dioxide absorption, mitigate noise and air pollution. They provide beautification, increased property values and a pleasant place for social interaction.

For cities and counties that contain undeveloped land, the challenge is to minimize species extinction, reverse population declines, maintain and enhance healthy populations of native fish and wildlife and provide people with healthy ecosystems while supporting a sustainable level of human use.

Some Tools to Preserve Biodiversity

An officially adopted and mapped line that divides land to be developed from greenbelt land. They are commonly termed Urban Growth Boundaries or urban limit lines, although suburban development outside of the boundary is also restricted.

A series of adjacent open space parcels surrounding urban and suburban areas. Green belts preserve habitats and other natural resources, contain development, and preserve place identity by separating one community from another.

The arrangement and size of buildable lots in a subdivision can vary, with the overall average density maintained below a certain level. This technique can preserve environmentally fragile and significant areas (e.g., wetlands, steep slopes) without taking away the property owner's development rights. Since overall densities are not increased, there should be no additional impact on roads and other public facilities from the development beyond what conventional development would bring.

Because most species need large tracts of space, it is better to have few, but large open space areas, not a collection of small natural islands. Consequently, it is better to replace natural fragments with wholes, through transfer of development rights and parcel exchanges.

A path or other linear open space that links two or more parks and other undeveloped areas. Animals that require large areas for hunting and/or mating can use them, as can hiker, joggers and other active recreationists. Especially useful to efficiently link districts with little green space to existing parks located elsewhere.

EXAMPLE: In 1993, Boulder County (Colorado) voters approved a quarter-cent sales tax to purchase property for open space preservation. Land set aside for wildlife habitat, inter-community buffers and recreation now totals 50,000 acres. The County uses other open space preservation tools including purchase and transfer of development rights and requirements to cluster development on 25% of the land, A recent public survey indicates 96% of Boulder County residents rank wildlife habitat preservation as important-a higher rating than any other open space use.

EXAMPLE: Waterloo, Canada requires subdivision developers to submit the following together with a performance bond:

• Conservation plan which identifies all existing trees, hedgerows and other groupings of trees and analyzes the trees proposed to be removed;

• Landscaping plan indicating the location of greenbelts, open space and trails within the subdivision;

• Grading plan with existing and proposed elevations and drainage scheme for each lot and block;

• Stormwater management and erosion control plan with infiltration trenches, retention ponds.

C. Community identity: Building a sense of community, preserving local culture

The human-made landscape has a profound impact on people. We are all familiar with the emotional effect of a return to the streets and playgrounds of our childhood; contrast this with the sadness in seeing the area has become unrecognizable. Our memories of enjoyable experiences in familiar landscapes and favorite places make these places unique and personally significant. Community and place identity are an important feature of sustainability. Maintaining old buildings provides a link to the past that makes a community pleasant to live in. By preserving physical elements from the past, we ensure that the future will remain recognizable. The neo-traditional movement in planning and architecture has begun to rewrite zoning ordinances, architecture manuals and developers' handbooks to create neighborhoods with this traditional sense of place (Center for Compatible Economic Development, 1996).

A sense of place is based on the connections people have to their surroundings and their neighbors, including: landscape features, topography and vistas; the arrangement of streets and buildings and their architectural styles; distance and physical separation from other communities; social, cultural and educational institutions and meeting places (Calthorpe 1993).

Traditional communities were affordable, efficient, scaled to human proportions and environmentally sound (Nelessen 1994). Traditional architecture was more efficient in its uses of resources and energy than more recent construction. Boston's row housing reduced heating costs in winter as adjacent buildings provided insulation. In contrast, hot air rises in the high-ceilinged rooms of Louisiana houses, allowing cooler air to flow in through the windows. A return to vernacular architectural techniques can mean energy savings.

However, there are also cultural reasons to reinstitute traditional architecture and building form. Reverting to regional and vernacular architecture enhances local cultural identity by enhancing a sense of place.

There is even a spiritual component to sustainable development. Many societies recognize that places and locales have intrinsic spiritual significance. The ancient Greeks recognized genius loci, the Celts mapped invisible ley lines, Native Americans have sacred mountains and other natural landmarks, the Chinese study feng shui. All of these recognize the particular qualities and effects of the places that populate the natural landscape.

Kevin Lynch applied a scientific methodology to the analysis of community design. Cities for which residents report a strong sense of identity tend to have easily recognizable features categorized as:

1. Districts: neighborhoods and other parts of a community that have a clear identity (e.g., financial district, Little Italy);

2. Paths: well-known route through an area (e.g., the diagonal shortcut trail worn across a park);

3. Edges: physical and psychological barriers that separate two areas (e.g., elevated freeway, riverfront);

4. Landmarks: district or citywide points of visual reference (e.g., a clock tower); and

5. Nodes: points of transfer, (e.g., train station or intersection of two major streets);

1. Explore and document local indigenous and vernacular architecture and urban form.

2. Identify and protect natural and human-made sites of cultural and spiritual significance.

3. Recognize and protect cultural and ethnic neighborhoods through zoning and development programs.

4. Institute design guidelines for existing and new districts to preserve and promote a sense of place.

EXAMPLE: The Alliance for Sustainable Communities and the Union County Planning Commission (Pennsylvania) carried out a two-day workshop in which local farmers, business owners, educators, high school students, engineers, architects and builders identified and mapped "sacred places" in Buffalo Valley, an area which historically has resisted planning and land use regulation. Three of the seven municipalities in this suburbanizing area have no planning and/or zoning, and two others only established such development control within the past five years. Yet workshop participants decided to establish of a group to educate their neighbors about sustainability and the need to protect the areas identified as being sacred (Annapolis 1996).

D. Dignity: Ensuring a safe, healthful and equitable community for everyone

A truly sustainable community must concern itself with the deeper issues of social justice and environmental racism. Otherwise, it is too easy for sustainability to deteriorate into ecological efficiency for the rich. We must concern ourselves with the geographic and social location of our efforts, avoiding locating polluting-generating activities in impoverished areas or neighborhoods of people of color and appropriately locating our remediation and prevention efforts. But we must also go beyond our local community and consider the social impacts of our energy, financial and material flows in the community. All too often we are benefiting locally without seeing the social or environmental impact of our resources. A full sustainability assessment of any project must take this into account so that life cycle assessments include social as well as environmental and economic analysis (ICLEI 1994).

A healthful community is one where everyone enjoys a high quality of life, including environmental, social, political, economic, behavioral, biological and medical factors.

For various reasons, poor people tend to live in areas subject to pollutants from industry, freeways and abandoned sites. Frequently, these polluted neighborhoods are disproportionately inhabited by people of color. Environmental racism is the term for the thesis that in this country, African-Americans, Hispanics, and other minority groups are more likely to live in districts with a shortage of green space and parks, and are exposed to polluting industry, contaminated brownfield sites, noisy and noxious highways.

Spending money to clean up these sites can provide many benefits, if residents of nearby neighborhoods are targeted for hiring to do the work (Goldman 1995). Job training can ensure they gain the skills and experience needed for long-term employment. Removal or mitigation of the contaminants will improve the quality of life for all nearby residents. Redevelopment of abandoned sites may provide new amenities and new job opportunities accessible without the use of the private automobile.

Community is often used to mean "city or county," or simply the people who live in a particular locale. But there are several other meanings for the word. One recognizes that everyone living in a place form a kind of family, which takes responsibility for all its members. Community strives for an equitable sharing of basic resources so that all can live with dignity. Without a mix of incomes, without giving people choices and a sense of control over their own future, there can be no equity in a municipality.

Equity is a subjective perception that things are just and fair. It is not synonymous with equality, but rather emphasizes that the distribution of wealth, opportunity, and power is seen to be fair. While most of us support the idea of fairness, we do not all agree on what is fair. What we consider to be equitable is very much based on our values and ethics (Center for Sustainable Communities 1997).

A global view of community means we must think about whether our use of resources is exploitative and unfair to other people. At the regional and local level, a concern for equity requires us to ensure that some people do not seize most of benefits and foist the problems on others. Communities in which people with differing income levels reside can provide better schools, libraries and other public services. Their neighborhoods are more stable, creating safer conditions for investment. Also, they counteract the jobs-housing imbalance which sees moderate-income workers having to commute long distances from affordable housing to their employment in more affluent communities.

1. Provide a mixture of housing in terms of size, configurations and price to permit people at all points of their life cycle to live in the same neighborhood.

2. Encourage infill housing.

3. Allow "granny flats" and other second units on single-family housing lots;

4. Promote live-work arrangements.

5. Encourage tenant involvement to reduce maintenance costs and improve neighborhood well-being.

6. Promote housing that fits the local climate and the micro-climate of the site to benefit from passive solar energy and other conservation benefits;

7. Use foreclosed properties for affordable housing instead of reselling it for private development.

1. Operate the plant as if it were in Beverly Hills or other affluent neighborhood.

2. Hire local residents and provide training programs.

3. Listen to the community and invite minority participation in economic development decision making.

4. Do not increase emissions on a highly impacted community;

5. Clean up contaminated areas.

6. Build community links with schools and local organizations.

EXAMPLE: Each year, Maryland's Montgomery County Conservation Corps employs 24 unemployed and out-of-school young adults in conservation and beautification projects. After career counseling, life skills development, GED/adult basic education and skills training, about three-quarters of participants go on either to college or employment in carpentry, landscaping in environmental science, basic carpentry and landscaping. At least one-third of funds for the program comes from fee-for-services (ICLEI 1994).

EXAMPLE: Polluted industrial sites, a waste incinerator and a landfill surround the low-income, minority neighborhoods of Chicago's 10th Ward. A local group, Irondalers Against the Chemical Threat, founded by women of color living in the district, opposed the conversion of a wetland habitat area into another landfill site. They brought members of the community out to public meetings, demonstrations and were able to exert political pressure. As a result, the landfill was blocked and a colony of night herons was saved (Sullivan 1987).

EXAMPLE: A 1990 inclusionary zoning provision in Burlington VT requires most for-profit developers to allocate between 10% and 25% of new housing units be accessible for low and moderate income households by setting rents at 65% of median, and sale costs at 75% of median. Non-profit housing groups have 120-day first-refusal rights on purchasing these units do they remain as low-cost housing even after the original occupant is gone (Burlington 1997).

E. Eco-Efficiency: Better uses of energy and natural resources

Eco-efficiency is a measure of the relative amount of pollution or resource use required to produce a unit of product or service (Pembina Institute 1997). Improving eco-efficiency means producing more of the goods and service desired with fewer resources and less waste. For example, by investing in energy efficiency and renewable energy communities are solving environmental problems and building stronger economies. Energy, water and solid waste efficiency programs can save millions of dollars each year.

"Until fairly recently natural capital was seldom accounted for and the focus was on manmade capital. Investments were made in the limiting factor [human produced capital], such as sawmills and fishing boats, because their natural capital complements, forests and fish, were abundant. Today, loss of forest cover and fish populations is showing the folly of ignoring the importance of natural capital in the design of long-term strategies" (Serageldin 1997).

A key component of sustainability is to adjust economic and accounting calculations by including the effect on the environment. Neo-classical economics left natural capital (land, minerals and other natural resources) out of the calculation of economic output. Only labor and capital were included (Stallworth 1997). In contrast, sustainability recognizes that our economy is a particular subsystem of the ecosystem. As such, it is dependent on the environment, both as a source for inputs (raw materials) and as a sink for outputs (waste).

Although most of the work on eco-efficiency has been carried out in the private sector, it is important for cities and counties to also adopt eco-efficient practices. Local governments can save money through eco-efficiency; they can also serve as a model for other elements of the community - and be good customers for 'green businesses' if they modify their procurement, operations and maintenance policies in light of eco-efficiency.

Increasing insulation requirements in new construction and in retrofitting.

Requiring passive solar construction and development techniques (e.g., tree-planting and window orientation).

Rewarding energy conservation through tiered-rate pricing and time-of-day variation.

Requiring installation of water conservation toilets, showerheads and faucets in new construction and retrofitting.

Encouraging installation of dual piping in new construction to allow the use of gray water for fire fighting and landscaping.

Using natural and constructed drainage swales, wetlands and other permeable surfaces for storm water collection.

Fostering closed-loop production where manufacturers use each other's byproducts.

Modifying procurement policies to require state-of-the-technology percentages of used fibers.

Charging users fees (by weight or volume) for garbage collection.

Reduce and reuse land use by

see Access and Biodiversity sections

1. Use renewable, recycled or waste materials to foster closed-loop production

2. Favor non-toxic and renewable materials

3. Favor resources from nearby locations

4. Are diversified and adaptable

5. Create jobs for a range of education, experience and income

6. Provide and invest in a safe work environment

7. Encourage local ownership for suppliers, employees

8. Provide fair and equitable opportunity for employees, including living wages, training and educational opportunities

EXAMPLE: Portland OR's Block-by-Block Weatherization Program provides free insulation and energy education to low-income families improving the city's housing stock and neighborhood stability. More than 1,600 homes have been weatherized in the program, and an economic evaluation indicates that 14.3 jobs were created by this program from a total investment of $338,000 (Cities for Climate Protection 1996).

EXAMPLE: Louisville and Jefferson County Metropolitan Sewer District recycles a wide range of commodities, including paper, beverage cans, toner cartridges, used motor oil, tires, batteries, petroleum naphthalene, methylene chloride, freon, foundry steel, cast iron, and landscape wastes. The Utility sees the cost of this effort as manageable and acceptable. Departments incorporate eco-efficiency duties and projects into their budgets. Some aspects of implementation require the allocation of new funds, while others result in savings (Institute for Local Self-Reliance, 1997).

References

Annapolis Alliance for Sustainable Communities. Faxed information.

Austin, City of. 1996. Sustainable Communities Initiative 1996.

Burlington, City of. 1997. Creating A Sustainable City: The Case Of Burlington, Vermont Mayor of Burlington's Office, May 1997.

Calthorpe, Peter. 1993. The Next American Metropolis. Ecology, Community and the American Dream. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.

Center for Compatible Economic Development. 1996. A Citizen's Guide to Achieving a Healthy Community, Economy and Environment. Leesburg, VA: The Nature Conservancy.

Center For Sustainable Communities. 1998. Cascadia Community and Environment Institute, University of Washington. Sustainability Tutorial, Lesson V: Equity. Seattle, WA http://weber.u.washington.edu/~common

Cities for Climate Protection 1996. Fact Sheet: Portland's Weatherization Program. Toronto: ICLEI.

Goldman, Benjamin A. with Judith Shapiro, John T. O'Connor, Rob Inerfeld Eric Weltman: Jobs & Environment Campaign Washington, DC: Department of Commerce, Economic Development Administration, 1995.

ICLEI (International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives). 1994. Community-Based Environmental Management, ICLEI Case Study #14.

ICLEI (International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives). 1995. Integration Of Transportation And Land-Use Policies Portland, United States, Cities for Climate Protection Case Study #36. Toronto: ICLEI.

Institute for Local Self-Reliance. 1997. Website Waste Reduction Record-Setters Program Profiles. <http://www.ilsr.org>; Information downloaded in Sept. 1997.

Nelessen, Anton Clarence. 1994. Visions for a new American dream Second Edition, Chicago: APA Planners Press.

Pembina Institute for Appropriate Development. 1997Building Eco-efficient communities, a how-to-guide. . Drayton Valley, Alberta (Canada).

Pushkarev, Boris and Jeffrey M. Zupan. 1997. Public Transportation and Land Use Policy Bloomington: Indian University Press.

Renew America. 1997. Environmental Success Index "Mountgomery County Conservation Corps" revised Feb. 14, 1997. http://www.crest.org/sustainable/renew_america//index.html

Ryan, John C. 1992. "Conserving Biological Diversity" in State of the World 1992. New York: Worldwatch Institute/W.W. Norton & Company. p. 25

This ICLEI founder expects a copy of this report

Serageldin, Ismail. 1996. Sustainability and the Wealth of Nations First Steps in an Ongoing Journey Environmentally Sustainable Development Studies and Monographs Series, No. 5. Washington DC, p.4.

Stallworth, Holly. 1997. The Economics of SustainabilityOSEC Issue Brief #5. Office of Sustainable Ecosystems and Communities U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Sullivan, Jerry. 1987. "Of Dumps, Chicago Politics & Herons," Audubon, Vol. 89, No. 2: 125. and Confronting Environmental Racism: Voices from the Grassroots. R. Bullard, ed. Boston: South End Press: p.28.

Urban Ecology, Inc. 1996 Blueprint for a sustainable Bay area Oakland, CA: Urban Ecology, p.93

Urban Land Institute. 1992. "Mizner Park"Project Reference File 22(8), April-June, 1992.

Joshua Wolfe, AICP
Associate
Design, Community & Environment
1600 Shattuck Avenue, Suite 222
Berkeley, California 94709
(510) 848-3815
joshua@dceplanning.com