SECTION ONE - Chapter 2
Architectural & Interior Styles 1920-1950

Design in the United States followed new movements and influences during the 1920's to 1940's. The style of design and architecture varied greatly in different regions of the country. In the Southwest, Pueblo Revival, Mission Revival, Art Deco, and Pueblo Deco influenced the design of structures. Inspiration for these styles stemmed from several sources; Ancient Native American architecture and Spanish Mission . Because of these influences, design in the Southwest was unique to the country.

Pueblo Revival Style
The Pueblo Revival movement began in the late 1890's. Native American architecture was a subject published in architecture journals of the late 1800's and early 1900's, allowing architects to absorb the image of the pueblo into their vocabulary (Markovich). One of the most intact examples of ancient pueblo architecture is the Taos pueblo in New Mexico. Other ruins, like the Pueblo Bonito ruin in Chaco Canyon and the Cliff Palace Ruin in Mesa Verde give an impression of the plan and structure of the village. Over the years, the Hopi and Zuni tribes have modernized their ancient pueblos with some new structures and features, although the style and some ruins of the original pueblos still remain (Markovich).

The architecture of the pueblos is compelling. The pueblo conforms to its natural setting, exuding the sense of belonging to a larger natural whole (Markovich). The plan of the village is irregular, usually based on the location of mountains and rivers. The center of the town is reserved for a communal open space. This unevenly shaped plaza most often contains a kiva, an underground chamber for ceremonies and social functions. Pueblos are built of stone, timber and adobe. Adobe can refer to mud plaster or earthen bricks, both of which are used in the construction of the pueblos (Henry). The forms of the houses are rectilinear and stacked in overlapping configurations. Historically entrances were on the second floor necessitating the use of a timber ladder. Recently, most tribes have added doors on the first floor (Markovich). Usually, windows were proportionally small to the overall façade. The vigas or roof beams frequently protrude from the wall. Pueblo construction is a result of the desert climate, available building materials, and the cultural values of the people. Adobe is an ideal material for arid climates, emitting and absorbing heat, creating a stable indoor temperature throughout the day and night (Henry).

In 1910, architect Arthur Benton spoke on the topic “Shall We Plan for a Distinctive Architecture of the Southwest?”. He argued that traditional forms should develop naturally, or become the basis for new “modern architecture”. He stated: “The railroads, hotels, and commercial bodies all use our old Missions to attract tourists and dollars to themselves. How disappointing for the traveler to stand on our business streets and see little to remind him that he is not in Chicago , New York , or Kansas City ?” Benton believed the region was exotic due to the desert landscape, “the presence of Natives and Hispanics”, and the existence of ruins. He wanted to bring out the romantic sense of the place through architecture, returning to rural, natural and rustic forms of the historic southwest (Markovich).

The Fred Harvey company was quick to realize the commercial potential of a unique regional architecture, and in the early 1900's several hotels such as the Alvarado, and El Tovar were instant successes. Mary Coulter's Indian Room in the Alvarado Hotel created an interest in Native American art and artifacts, which soon became popular in Pueblo Revival Interiors (Breeze).

The Hallmarks of the Pueblo Revival Style are the earth-toned stucco/adobe walls, rounded contours, flat roofs, small rectangular or square windows, and rows of projecting vigas on the exterior (City of Mesa). This Style was used for all types of buildings in the Southwest. The city of Santa Fe is a city planned mostly in this regional style. Many homes in the Southwest, and even some in New York and California reflect this style, on both the interior and exterior (Markovich). The architectural vocabulary of the ancient pueblos is still a valuable design consideration today, especially in the Southwest.

Another revival apparent during the same period was the Mission Revival Style. This type of architecture was influenced by Spanish mission churches. The sculptural arches of the missions are important features, as well as portals (porches along the outside of a house, supported with posts) (King). Other elements include heavy wooden doors, tile roofs, carved supports and enclosed patios (City of Mesa ). Mission Revival and Spanish Colonial Revival became extremely popular in California . Spanish Colonial Style is similar to Spanish Mission Style, focusing the plan on a courtyard. Stylistic elements include a low pitched tile roof, arched porch entrances, recessed windows, and patterned tile floor and wall surfaces. In the Southwest, often Mission Revival and Spanish Colonial Revival features were combined with Pueblo Revival style (King).

The most prominent design style for public and commercial architecture throughout the country in the 1920's- 1940's was Art Deco. The Paris exposition internationale des arts Decoratifs et industriels modernes in 1925 is credited with the beginning of the movement, and its name. The world, and the United States were in a transitory time, where industry, technology, and modernism were changing culture and daily life. The Art Deco movement was unlike all existing styles, although it had strong ties with the past. Art Deco was mainly expressed through surface ornamentation ( Chandler ).

The style of ornament is often purposefully repetitive, giving the impression of being machine-produced. Art Deco is known for its geometric and abstract interpretations of a wide range of ancient cultural motifs and art. The most influential cultures in the shapes of Art Deco were Egyptian, Mayan, African, Middle Eastern, Native American and Greek. Other elements may abstract flora, fauna and other natural elements like sunbursts and water in geometric form. Stylized forms derived from industry, such as wheels and gears are also popular in Art Deco. The Cubism and Constructivism movements in art were also major influences.

Southwest Architectural Styles
With Art Deco sweeping the nation in the early part of the twentieth century, the Southwest translated this style into a region appropriate version. Pueblo Deco, developed primarily in Santa Fe and Phoenix in the 1920's and 1930's, was influenced by legends of the wild west, native Americans and Hispanics. It combined the aesthetics of Art Deco, modern lines and local vernacular history. John Gaw Meem, a leading architect of this Southwest style, saw modern as “not a single solution but as a style that varies from place to place dictating regional variation. ”Southwestern architectural patterns during this period took inspiration from the distinctive environment of the Southwest and reflected the traditions of pueblo architecture. With extreme summer heat being a primary reason for slow population growth in the southwest “architects adapted the traditional spanish courtyard house plan to define sheltered patios and terraces for the increasingly informal outdoor lifestyle of the 1920's” ( Wilson 23). Residential plans drew elements from the local Spanish and pueblo vernaculars by stretching the courtyard into sprawling L, U and Y shaped plans (Figure 2 - 4). These shapes opened houses to commanding views of the desert. By keeping buildings flat roofed and low to the ground, these terraced masses would settle into the hillside and appear as part of the landscape (Figure 2 - 1). With the heat factor, unique terrain, and minimal available materials dictating the built environment in the Southwest, thick walls and terraced masses of the Pueblo Deco Style made sense for the American southwest.

In most cases, Art Deco designs were realized in a bright palette of colors. Symmetry was often an important factor and ornament was very structured in particular sections. New materials available in this era were integrated with art deco design, especially in interiors. Glass block, neon, chrome, terrazzo and colored glass panels were all widely used in Art Deco design (Haralson).

Art Deco reflects slightly different styles based on the region of the country as well. The most widely known example of Art Deco is the Chrysler Building in New York City . The South Beach District of Miami is also famous for its bright seaside style of Art Deco. In all major cities of the country, there are still fine examples of Art Deco buildings. West of the Mississippi , Tulsa , Forth Worth, Omaha , Albuquerque , Phoenix , and Los Angeles all have numerous fine examples of Art Deco buildings ( Chandler ).

A variation of the Art Deco style is found specifically in the Southwest and is referred to as Pueblo Deco. This style still contains the abstraction, repetition and angularity characteristics of Art Deco ornamentation. Pueblo Deco combines Art Deco with Pueblo Revival architecture. A unique aspect used widely in Pueblo Deco is the inclusion of motifs taken from Native American pottery, baskets, textiles and jewelry. The interiors of many Pueblo Deco buildings showcase Native American murals and art. Some of the best examples of Pueblo Deco style are the KiMO Theater and Maisel Building in Albuquerque , the Arizona Biltmore Hotel in Phoenix , and The Southern Pacific Station in Casa Grande , Arizona (Breeze).

The form and line of structures built of 1920-1950 brought together southwest vernaculars and the latest trend, Art Deco. Although the plans of many residences closely reflected the Pueblo Style, other elements simultaneously reflected Art Deco. Repetition of geometric shapes were seen in the expansive windows of solar portales – deep porches oriented south or southeast toward the rising sun ( Wilson 121). A residence in Phoenix Arizona for Barry Goldwater was a modern Pueblo Style building, retrofitted with a curvilinear wall of glass blocks reflecting the Art Deco influence. The same structure incorporated influences from the Spanish colonial missions of the 1800's. The Spanish Colonial Style was much more detailed than the Pueblo Style but they blended gracefully. For example, decorative rectangular recesses, an art deco element, were hand carved into wooden doors, a Spanish colonial element. Arched doors, doorways, and kiva fireplaces softened the repetitive rectilinear lines of Art Deco. Such patterns of form blurred the line from one style to the other.

Southwest Building Materials
Materials used in the southwest during the 1920's and 1930's were those that were produced locally. Copper was frequently used to create the shiny, light-reflecting character of Art Deco (Figure 2 - 2). Spanish influence provided the southwest with adobe. Throughout history earthen structures have given the southwest natural beauty and organic integrity. Humankind's oldest building substance, adobe, can meet modern demands with traditional forms and materials. Although the adobe style can be seen as preserving ancient Spanish culture it also parallels modern design. The sculptural adobe style was the southwest's “modern”. Adobe consisted of mud, water and another organic material such as hay or straw formed into blocks and then sun dried. Adobe style buildings also had very unique ceiling structures. Vigas were roughly distressed logs that extended through the walls and served as the main roof support beams. Layered on top of the vigas were latillas. These were hand split planks or sticks that formed the ceiling by laying perpendicular across the vigas or sometimes in a herringbone pattern (Figure 2 - 3). Adobe was quick, efficient and preserved ancient building values in the southwest.

The Streamlining Style became popular after the rise of Art Deco and was based on aerodynamic forms used in transportation. This style used some of the same geometry and repetition as Art Deco, but represented a different style. The smooth curves, slick lines, and geometric patterns were carried through in buildings, furniture and household objects. Graphic design of the era also reflected a fascination with industry and technology, along with simple abstraction of forms ( Chandler ).

The design styles between 1920 and 1950 applied to buildings in the Southwest were truly vital in creating a lasting and unique regional architecture. The Pueblo Revival, Mission Revival, Art Deco, and Pueblo Deco styles all show an acceptance of the value of other cultures, namely Native American, through the assimilation of ancient pueblo architecture, and decorative motifs (Breeze). The architect Arthur Benton's 1910 proposal to “let traditional forms develop naturally, and use them as a basis for new modern architecture” was fulfilled in the design styles that developed in years that followed (Markovich). The phenomenal variation and character of the design in this era still enriches cities today.

Interior Elements 1920- 1950
Interior architecture, materials, furniture styles, home appliances, textiles, patterns and colors of in the 1920's, 30's, and 40's display a connection of local traditions and modern art deco. Throughout this thirty year time period styles became variants of each other, but no one distinct style emerged.

Furniture Styles
Furniture styles from the 1920's to the 1940's closely followed that of Europe, mainly designs being displayed at the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs in Paris . A general style that reoccurred throughout this thirty year time span was that of Art Deco (Art Deco).

Art Deco is characterized by sleek clean lines accented by interesting angles and strictly geometric shapes. The term Jazz Moderne refers to these stylistic zig zag patterns and motifs (Pile 115). There was an increased use of luxurious materials and surface finishes, such as marquetry or enameling. A more simplified version of the highly ornate Beaux Arts style was employed with the use of crystal accents, exotic woods, ivory, animal pelts, leather, and gilding. (Figure 2 - 5) New materials such as chrome, and chrome tubing, Bakelite, vinyl, and tubular neon lights were incorporated wherever possible. The use of the semi circle and regular rounded edge were prominent (Figure 2 - 6) (Style 315-340).Restrained decoration resembling calligraphy was used for chair arm rests or table legs. Colors which were in stark contrast with one another such as black, white, red and gold were quite fashionable, but were not the only colors used during this time period.

Furniture began to imitate architecture of the time. The most popular form to emulate were sky scrapers. Upholstered furniture took on a chunky boxy form, often with rounded edges(Figure 2 - 7). Generously padded cushions would often be piped with a contrasting trim color or material (Frost, “Furniture”) All elements within a room would have cohesive design elements. There was less of a need for free standing, moveable furniture. Built-in pieces such as cabinets became more popular (Lee).

In the late 1930's a form of Art Deco, called Streamlining became a very popular design influence for interior products. It showed up in appliances, architecture, furniture, and everyday objects. It was characterized by very sleek, modern, and futuristic forms which generally were accented with horizontal striping, to evoke a feeling of movement (Figure 2 - 5) (Pile 115).

In Europe a distinct style called the International Style began emerging in the early 1920's from the Bauhaus, in Germany . It did not take hold as strongly as Art Deco, except in some design and architecture communities, of strict followers. A use of minimal ornament and decoration was employed. Rectangular planes could be formed together to create any piece of furniture that was needed. It was a style about function, not comfort or aesthetics, quite the opposite of Art Deco.

Another less strictly defined variation of Art Deco was beginning to be seen in the southwest. In combination with the Mission Style, a more natural and slightly Spanish variation began to emerge. This was characterized by the use of bent wood instead of metal tubing, native fabrics in brighter colors, and less opulent materials which would be impractical in the desert.

Vernacular styles looked towards the cowboy films coming out of Hollywood for furniture design and home decoration. Lighter woods were used and a hand made or chiseled look was often evoked in embellishments. (Figure 2 - 8) Hand painted motifs from the desert were popular as well as the incorporation of animal horns or cacti spines.

Home Appliances
Home appliances took on the style of Art Deco and Streamlining, remaining popular well into the 1940's. Simple clean lines with rounded edges and streamlining lines were applied to everything from refrigerators to hand mixers (Frost, “Kitchens”). Shaped aluminum or molded Bakelite was ideal for these shapes. Bakelite was a new type of hard plastic that could be molded and shaped into smooth rounded three dimensional forms. There was an emphasis on the modernity and sophisticated technological advances that were being made during that time.

Art Deco Pattern and Color in Textiles
American Art Deco, or The Moderne, is similar to its European counterpart by stylistically focusing on abstraction and exoticism, but it varies in that it is much more streamlined and simple (Samuels 9). This is especially evident in the textile industry. In response to the 1925 Paris Exhibit, American craft artists moved away from standardized floral patterns and historical revivals to focus on depictions of contemporary life in the United States in stylized patterns and bold primary colors (11). A series entitled Americana was created in 1927 that depicted many aspects of American life from roller coasters in Dwight Taylor's Thrills (Figure 2 - 9) to jazz music with Ralph Barton's Gentlemen Prefer Blondes print (Figure 2 - 11) (82,86). In 1930, textile artist Helen Wills designed fabric interpreting the American flag in the Moderne style in her Stars and Stripes print (Figure 2 - 10) (11, 85). Designers also took inspiration from everyday items. In 1930, C.B. Falls produced Pegs (Figure 2 - 12) and Moth Balls and Sugar Cubes . Both pieces depict simple household objects, but present them in a state of high abstraction and repetition in order to focus more on the form and less on the familiarity of the object (11, 87-88). Many textiles of the period focused on urban life and architecture. Ruth Reeves, considered one of the best-known American textile designers of the 1930's, produced Manhattan in 1932 showing that “the Empire State Building, the Brooklyn Bridge and the Statue of Liberty are no less emblematic of contemporary America than the automobiles, factories, trains and biplanes featured, nor the citizens, typing in offices, taking photographs and enjoying the nightlife” (11, 90-91). Like many artists of the time, she worked in a wide variety of formats using her designs for fabric for furnishings, tablecloths, hangings, as well as carpets.

Color within Art Deco pieces comes from a variety of sources and influences. Inspired by Art Nouveau, as well as Cubism, many Art Deco artists' work reflects these radical art movements (7). Bold primary colors, as well as simple black and white are often seen in this time period. Often times, “shockingly bright hues” are juxtaposed with one another “to release the energy contained within colour” (7). During the early 20 th century a renewed interest in Arab culture developed as well, leading to a surge of colorful exoticism within Art Deco. Also, fashion of the time influenced the Art Deco color palette by creating a need for soft, fluid cloth in glowing colors (8). By combining fashion and art inspirations, Art Deco designers created a dynamic and bold color palette.

With the beginning of the 1940's, World War II drastically changed the focus of the American textile industry. The exotic era of Art Deco gave way to the more conservative war effort. Rubber plants began to be used more heavily for raincoats, overshoes, garden hoses, as well as many items that contain fabric (Walton 22). In order to support the war effort, Americans were encouraged to focus only on “our essential civilian needs” (24). By conserving and restricting textile use, more fabric was available for the much-needed military requirements caused by both fronts of World War II.

Native American Hand-woven Textiles
Native American hand woven textiles were also very popular in Southwest regional design of the early 20 th century. Traditionally, hand spun wool is the most common material for weavers, but there are many other commercial materials used as well including Bayeta, Saxony, and Germantown yarns (Kaufman 130-132). Red is usually the predominant color in Native American weavings, but other colors included deep blue, pale yellow, varied shades of green, and dark black-brown. These colors were achieved using presynthetic and vegetal dyes attained from plants in their natural environments such as the indigo plant and rabbit brush flowers. Complex geometric patterns are characteristic of hand woven Native American textiles. These striped and angled forms are achieved through a combination of many weaving techniques including plain, tapestry, twill, pulled-warp, and wedge-weave techniques (138). In the present day, many of these traditional techniques continue to be used and celebrated worldwide.

All of these elements of design worked together to create a wide variety of styles within this time period. Architecture, furniture, and textiles of the southwest reflected their unique environment while blending with nationwide styles. The 1920's to the 1940's was a notable and dynamic period for design.

Influential Structures of the Period
The following is a list of influential structures, their designer, and their location constructed during the time span of 1920 until 1940.